មេរៀន អាកប្បកិរិយារបស់អង្គភាព

Build Bright University

Oganizational Behavior

For Internal Use

Taught by: Soeung Channeang

 Lecturers team of Business Management of Build Bright University

CONTENTS OF OB

1- Management and Organizational Behavior

2- Values, Attitudes and Job satisfaction

3- Personality, Emotions and Perception

4- Motivation in Organization

5- Group and Team Behavior

6- Decision-Making and Communication in Organization

7- Stress Management

8- Organizational Conflict and Dispute Resolutions

9- Organizational Power and Politics

10-Leadership in Organization

CHAPTER 1

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND MANAGEMENT

1.1- MANAGERS

MANAGERS—individuals who achieve goals through other people. They make decisions, allocate resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals.

1.2- LEVEL OF MANAGERS

Top-Level Manager — senior executive responsible for the overall management and effectiveness of the organization.

Middle-Level Manager — managers located in the middle layers of the organization’s hierarchy, reporting to top-level executive

Lower-Level Manager — who supervises the operational activities of organization. 

1.3- FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

Planning—defining organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities.

Organizing—mangers are also responsible for designing an organization’s structure. Organizing includes the determination of what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.

Leading—management’s job to direct and coordinate those people. Managers motivate employees, direct the activities of others, select the most effective communication channels, or resolve conflicts among members.

Controlling—to ensure that things are going as they should or planned. Management must monitor the organization’s performance. Actual performance must be compared with the previously set goals. This compares and potential correcting if necessary.

 

 

1.4- ORGANIZATIONS

Organization works as a system

External Environment

         INPUTS                                 PROCESSES                    OUTPUTS

Raw materials

Human resources                          Organization Transformation       Goods/Services

Energy, Financial Resources              Processes/Activities   

Information/Equipment/Tech 

Great Organizations: have certain strengths and values for operation.

The survey asks executives, board members, and financial analysts to rate 10 largest companies in their industries on the following eight key attributes of reputation:

1-  Quality of management	2-  Quality of products/services
3-  Innovativeness	4-  Long-term investment value
5-  Financial strengths	6-  Ability to attract, develop, and keep talented people
7-  Community and environmental responsibility	8-              Use of corporate assets

 

1.5- MANAGEMENT ROLES

Interpersonal Roles — all managers are required to perform duties of figurehead roles, leadership roles, and liaison roles.

Informational Roles — all managers collect information from organizations and institutions outside. The roles of information are monitor roles, disseminator roles and spokesperson roles

Decisional Roles—finally, Mintzberg identified four roles of entrepreneur roles, disturbance handlers, resources allocations roles and negotiator roles.

1.6- MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Technical Skills—the ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise.

Human Skills—the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people.

Conceptual Skills—the mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations.

1.7- ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Organizational Behaviour (OB)—a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness. Therefore, OB is the study of individual and group behaviour within organization.

1.8- CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE OB FIELD

Organizational Behaviour is an applied behavioural science that is build on contributions from a number of behavioural disciplines.

- Psychology—is field of the study: Learning, Motivation, Personality, Emotion, Perception, 

- Psychology—is science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. It focuses on attitudes, behaviour, perception, training, leadership effectiveness, job satisfaction, individual decision-making, performance appraisal, work stress, senses, consciousness, mental state…

- Sociology—the study of people in relation to their human being. It focuses on group dynamic, work teams, communication, power, conflict, inter-group behavior, organizational change and cultures……..

- Social-Psychology—area within psychology that blends/combines concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another. For example: behavioural change, attitude change, communication, group process, group decision-making

- Anthropology—the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. For example: comparative value, comparative attitudes, cross cultural analysis, organizational culture and organizational environment

- Political Science—is the study of the behaviour of individuals and groups within optical environment. It focuses on structuring conflict and resolution, negotiation, allocation of power, intra-organizational politics

1.9- CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB

Responding to Globalization—globalization affects a manager’s people skills in at least two ways:

- First, you’re increasingly likely to find yourself in a foreign assignment. You may be transferred to your employee’s operating division subsidiary in another country. So, you will have managed a workforce that is different in needs, aspirations, attitudes, behaviour, social-cultural concepts, styles and so on…………

- Second, even in your own country, you’re going to find yourself working with bosses, peers, and other employees who were born and raised in different cultures. To work effectively with these people, you’ll need to understand their cultures. So, cultural differences require managers to modify their practices.  

Managing Workforce Diversity—one of the most important and challenges currently facing organizations is adapting to people who are from different. While globalization focuses on differences between people from different countries, workforce diversity addresses differences among people with countries. Workforce Diversity means that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous/differences in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, norms. Example: Asian, Africans, Americans, Japanese, Australian are all differences in behaviour, cultures, personality, perception related to communication, work, styles, and decision-making.

1.10- DEVELOPING OB MODEL

Individual Level—personality and emotion (felling), values and attitudes, ability, perception, motivation, individual learning and decision-making (human inputs)……………………..

Group Level—group decision-making, leadership and trust, communication, group structure, work-team, conflict, power and politics (change and stress)………………....

Organizational Systems Level—Human resources policies and practices, Organizational culture, Organizational structure and design, Work design and technology……...

Human Outputs—Productivity, absence, turnover, citizenship and satisfaction……

QUESTIONS

1-  What is OB? and Explain OB is Challenges and Opportunities?

2-  What disciplines contributed to the OB field?

3-  How OB important to help managers?

CHAPTER 2

VALUES, ATTITUTDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION

2.1- VALUES

1- The amount of money that something is worth—the values of the house

2- To think that something is important to you—valuable advice.

3- Your principles about what is right and wrong, or your ideas about what is important in life—Western Freedom and Human Rights Respect Values

4- Family Values an expression meaning the beliefs that family is very important.

We identify the values such as freedom, pleasure, respect, honesty, obedience, quality, equality. Values are important to the study of OB. Values are foundation for understanding of attitudes, and motivation because values influence on behavior and personality of us…..

2.2- TYPES OF VALUES

Values are classified into Terminal Values and Instrumental Values.

Terminal Values—refer to desirable end-states of existence. These are the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

Instrumental Values—refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values.

For Examples of Terminal and Instrumental Values in Value Survey

               Terminal Values                                     Instrumental Values

- A comfortable life or a prosperous life             Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)

- An exciting life, or active life                           Broad-minded or open-minded

- A world at peace (free of war and conflict       Cheerful, lightened, joyful

- A sense of accomplishment                              Capable (competent, effective)

- Happiness                                                         Honest (sincere, truthful)

2.3- ATTITUDES

Attitudes—the way you behave toward someone or something in a particular situation. It is evaluative statements or judgment concerning objects, people, or events.

Ex: Attitudes toward job satisfaction, you show you feel aggressive attitudes. It also includes the emotional or feeling of attitudes. These influence on human behavior at work or somewhere. In organizations, attitudes are very important because they affect job behavior.

2.4- TYPES OF ATTITUDES

1-Job Satisfaction—the term job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitudes toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes about job

2-Job Involvement—the term job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and considers his or her perceive performance level important to self-worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do. High levels of job involvement have been found to be related to fewer absences, and lower resignation rates

3-Organizational Commitment—the third job attitude we will discuss is organizational commitment, which is defined as a state in which employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wish to maintain membership in the organization. So, high job involvement means identifying with one’s specific job while high organizational commitment means identifying with one’s employing organization.  

2.5-JOB SATISFACTION

How do we measure job Satisfaction?—involvement, performance, less absenteeism ……

How to satisfy employees in their job?—good work environment, pay, promotion ……

What’s the effect of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover rates?—high involvement, commitment, productivity, less absenteeism and low turnover ………

Four Factors Conductive to Job Satisfaction

1-  Work opportunities to use their skills, abilities, freedom, feedback on what they are doing

2-  Equitable Rewards—fair, just, equal and clean policies (Equal Pay Act EPA)

3-  Supporting working environment—clean surrounding, comfortable, modern facilities

4-  Supportive colleagues—friendly, supportive co-workers, understanding, praise/admire for good performance, listen to opinions……………… 

Question:

1.      Why is it important to know an individual’s value?

2.      How satisfied are people in their job?

3.      What is attitude?

4.      Why is it important to know an employee’s attitudes?

CHAPTER 3

PERSONALITY, EMOTIONS AND PERCEPTION

3.1- PERSONALITY

Why are some people quiet and passive while others are loud and aggressive?

What is Personality?—someone’s character, especially the way they behave towards other people or another is defined as the ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.

Personality Traits—reserved, outgoing/friendly, less intelligent, more intelligent, lazy, work-hard, affected by feelings, emotionally stable, brave, timid/hesitant, afraid, trusting, dominant/prevailing, serious, happy-go-lucky, aggressive/violent, quiet, loud, shy, ambitious, loyal, relaxed.(Look Tiger..!!!)

3.2- PERSONALITY DETERMINATIONS

The debate/discussion in personality researched on an individual’s personality was the result of Heredity or of Environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth, or was it the result of the individual’s interaction with his or her environment?—Personality appears to be result of both influences. Today we recognize the third factor—that is Situation. Thus, an adult’s personality (grown person) is now generally considered to be made up of both heredity and environmental factors, moderated by situation conditions.

Heredity—refers to those factors that were determined at conception/birth. Physical stature/height, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament /disposition, muscle composition, and reflexes, energy level and biological factor……The research demonstrated that heredity plays important parts in determining an individual’s personality because it is from the structure of genes located in the chromosomes

Environment—among the factors that exert/apply pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised, our conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and other influences that we experience. These environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our personalities. For example: Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one generation to the next and create consistencies over time.

Situation—a third factor, the situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual’s personality does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations.

Personality and Congruent/fitting Occupations

Types                                            Personality Characteristics           Congruent Occupations

Social: prefers activities               Sociable, friendly, cooperative         Social workers, Teachers

Involve helping, develop others   understanding                                   counselor, clinical psychologist

3.3- EMOTIONS

Emotions—strong human feeling such as love, hate, anger……. Emotions play important roles in our everyday life, it might surprise you to learn. The topic of emotions contributed within the field of OB.

Organizations have focused on controlling and managing emotions. Organizations help employees to eliminate fear, anger, hate, worried, conflict but try to improve conflict resolutions, joy, love, friendly, good relationship and communication at the workplace.

Gender and Emotions—the evidence/proof does confirm differences between men and women when it comes to emotional reactions. Women show greater emotional expression than men, they experience emotions more intensely/powerfully and display both positive and negative emotions, except anger. But men are taught be brave and challenge. Women are expected to express more positive emotions on the job (shown by smiling) than men do

3.4- PERCEPTION

What is Perception?—is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory/opinion impressions in order to give meaning to their environment or Perception is the process by which an individual gives meaning to the environment. Because each person gives his or her own meaning to different individuals will see the same thing in different ways. So, perception involves cognition (Knowledge), and it includes the interpretation of objects, symbols, and people in term of pertinent/relevant experiences. Perception also involves receiving organizing and translating or interpreting work, and it influences behaviour and forms attitudes.

Factors Influencing Perception

How do we explain that individuals may look at the same thing, yet perceived it differently?—When people look at a target and attempt to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily influenced by Personal Characteristics of individual receiver.

QUESTIONS

1-  Why are some people quiet and passive, while others loud and aggressive?

2-  What is personality?

3-  Explain positive personality and negative personality?

4-  What factors are personality determinations?

5-  What are Emotions? What different emotions between men and women? Explain

6-  Can managers control the emotions of their employees? And Why?

7-  What is perception?

8-  What will perception affect on job performance?

CHAPTER 4

MOTIVATION

4.1- MOTIVATION CONCEPTS

What is Motivation? — we will define motivation as the process that account/explain for an individual’s intensity/force, direction, and persistence/determination of effort toward attaining goal.

Motivation is concerned with effort toward any goal and we focus to organizational goals in order to reflect our interest in work-related behaviour.

The three key elements in our definition are intensity, direction, and persistence.

Intensity—is concerned with how hard a person tries. High intensity leads to successful job performance.

Direction—is the end target, that is goal. The effort is directed toward organizational goal.

Persistence—motivation has persistence. Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain their efforts. Ex: Motivated person stays with a task long enough to achieve his/her goal.

4.2- EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The 1950’s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts. Three specific theories were formulated during this period, and still the best well-known explanation for employee motivation in the world. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need Theory

The most well-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. He addressed and stressed on within every human being has a hierarchy of five needs.

1- Physiological                       2- Safety

3- Social                                   4- Esteem

5- Self-Actualization 

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct/ differ views of human beings: one basically negative, is Theory X, and the other basically is Theory Y.

Theory X—employees dislike work and will attempt to avoid it. They must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals

Theory Y—people will exercise self-direction and self-control and they are committed to objectives. People can learn to accept, and seek responsibility, ability to good decisions….

Two-Factor Theory

The two-Factor Theory (sometimes also called motivation-hygiene theory) was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg. The original research proposed two specific conclusions: 1-Extrinsic Conditions and 2-Intrinsic Conditions

Extrinsic/external Conditions — or called hygiene factors: salary, job security, working conditions, status, company policies or procedures, quality of interpersonal relations among peers, with superiors and with subordinates (Maslow’s idea of lower-order needs—physiological and safety or security needs and Social Needs)

Intrinsic/internal Conditions—or called motivators: achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement/progression, the possibility of growth (Maslow’s idea of higher-order needs—self-esteem and self-actualization)

4.3- CONTEMPORARY/CURRENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Contemporary theories of motivation is developed and presented currently to explain employee motivation.

ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer argues that there are three groups of human core needs—Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (called ERG Theory)

Existence/survive—requirements include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.

Relatedness—desire for maintaining important personal relationships. These are social and status desires require interaction with others. They align with Maslow’s social need and esteem needs.

Growth—finally, Alderfer presents growth needs; it is intrinsic desire for personal development. It is from Maslow’s esteem category and self-actualization………………….

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

It was developed by David McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on three needs: 1-Achievement, 2-Power, and 3-Affiliation/friendship.

1-   Needs for Achievement—commits to succeed, achieving goals and standards. People work harder for their recognition and achievement. These individuals value hard work and expect their successful results. Managers who are rewarded for achievement behaviour working hard and attitudes toward job satisfaction, direction, persistence to achieve goals.

2-   Needs for Power—the needs to make others behave in a way told, influence others. People with a high concentrates on obtaining power and authority. They concerned with influencing others and winning arguments.

3-   Needs for Affiliation/Link—the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationship. People with high affiliation concerned about the quality of important personal relationships, thus social relationships make the business successfully. One benefit of a high affiliation manager is the harmony in the workplace, good relationship among members create high performance.

4.4- REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement Theory is very important influence on human behaviour and it is an extremely/very important principle of conditions. Managers often use positive reinforcers to influence behaviour. Positive reinforcers strengthen and develop the behavioural response. Thus, positive reinforcers have values to the person, can be improved performance. But managers also use negative reinforcement to change human behaviour, such as punishment—includes oral or written warnings, demotion/downgrading, transfer, fine, layoffs or firing/dismissal. These administrative disciplines can change employee behaviour to improve high performance.

4.5- EQUITY THEORY

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes which those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience/understanding equity tension. Relate to Human Resource Practices according to Compensation Laws, Equal Employment Opportunity—EEO, no discrimination/Bias, no race, gender….. Equal Pay Act—EPA, for men and women will be paid equally for the same job and qualification.

4.6- EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy Theory—the strength tendency/trend to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcomes and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. In more practical terms, expectancy theory says that employee will be motivated to exert/apply a high level of effort when he or she believes that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal, that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as a bonus, a salary or a promotion and that reward will satisfy the employee’s personal goals.

Therefore, the expectancy theory focuses on three relationships:

1- Effort and Performance Relationship

2- Performance and Reward Relationship

3- Reward and Personal Goals Relationship.

QUESTIONS

1-  What is Motivation? And explain the general concepts of motivation?

2-  Why does the organization try to motivate employees in his or her organization?

3-  Explain the early theories of motivation—such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, theory X and theory Y, as well as two-factor theory?

4-  Explain the contemporary theories of motivation—such as ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer, McClelland’s theory of needs?

5-  What is reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectation theory?

6-  From your ideas, how will you motivate your employees to improve high performance?

CHAPTER 5

GROUP AND TEAM BEHAVIOUR

5.1- DEFINING GROUP

What is a Group?—A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependence, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Or group is an organized system of individuals who are connected with one another in order to satisfy needs

5.2- TYPES OF GROUPS

Group can be classified into different types are formal groups, informal groups:

Formal groups—we mean those defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks.

Example: Command and task groups are formal. Command group is a group composed/collected of individuals who report directly to a given manager. Task group is a group those working together to complete a job task.

Informal Groups—are alliances/union that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are naturally formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact.

Example: three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together are informal group. Interest and friendship groups are informal. Friendship group is a group those brought together they share one or more common characteristics—social alliances, satisfy social needs or similar political views/concept.....

5.3- JIONING GROUPS

Why people form groups? — Formal and Informal Groups form various reasons. Some of the reasons involve Needs, Achievement of Goals, Economics, Security, Status, Self-Esteem, Affiliation, Power, Social Interaction ..............

5.4- STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

1-Forming—the first stage of group development is forming and it characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members are “testing the water” to determine what types of behaviour are acceptable. But this stage is completed when members have begun to think themselves as part of a group.

2-Storming—the second stage in group development is storming is the one of intra-group conflict. This generally emotionally intense stage may involve competition among members for desired assignments and disagreements over appropriate task-related behaviours and responsibilities.

3-Norming—characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness (tendency or coherent). This stage is one in which close relationships, develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. It is a stage of cooperation and tends to be an open exchange of information, acceptance of differences of opinion and active attempts to achieve mutually (both side) agree upon goals and objectives. There is a strong degree of mutual attraction and commitment.

4-Performing—is that stage where the group is fully functional. The group structure is set and the roles of each member are understood and accepted. The group focuses on its energies, efforts, and commitments to accomplishment the task it has accepted. (Team)

5-Adjouring/provisional—involves development for temporary groups, such as committee, project groups, task forces, characterized by concern with wrapping (covering) up activities rather than task perform. This stage is very positive emotions for successful task accomplishment.       

5.5- WORK-GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Why are some group efforts more successful than others? The answer is that differences in ability of the group’s members—that is group member resources is a potential level of performance is depend on the resources that its members individually bring to the group. General resources of members include knowledge, skills, abilities and personality characteristics, size of the group, the level of conflict, management and leadership style, and the internal pressures on members to conform to the group’s norms.

5.6- TEAM AT WORK

Teams—are a special example of groups, characterized by cohesion and high levels of performance. Team is a small number of people with complementary (matching) skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals. This definition identifies several core characteristics of teams: size, complementary skills, performance goals, commitment to a common purpose and mutually accountability.

Team Effectiveness—team development is important factor in team effectiveness. Organization creates the right atmosphere (environment) for team development and functioning. Teams must have autonomy, their goals, cultures, values, leadership style. The rewards are offered to individuals or the group and organization must provide appropriate training in terms of the skills necessary for team work. Effective teams must manage interpersonal processes and provide clear goals, roles and norms as well as develop problem-solving abilities. Moreover, effective teams must develop a high level of cohesiveness and values are maintained.

QUESTIONS

1-  What is a Group? Why do people join group? and how many types of group? Explain

2-  Explain the stages of group development? and why are some group efforts more successful than others?

3-  What is Team? What is effective team? Explain the differences between team & group

CHAPTER 6

DECISION AND COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

6.1-DECISIONS

Managers in various kinds of organization, they all must make decisions. Why do managers make decisions? Because managers face problems constantly. Some problems that require a decision are simple, others seem overwhelming (great). So, it is very important to understand why decision-making can be challenging. The specialists in the field of decision-making have developed several ways of classifying different types of decisions. Simon—distinguishes (determine) between two types of decisions:

1- Programmed Decisions

2- Non-Programmed Decisions

the top management should use both types of decisions, but the concern (unease) is non-programmed decisions.

Middle and lower management usually uses and concentrates mostly on programmed decisions.

Summary Exhibit 6.1

Types of Decisions	Programmed Decisions	Non-programmed Decisions
Types of Problem	Frequently, repetitive, routine , much certainty regarding cause effect relationships	Novel (new), unstructured, much uncertainty regarding cause and effect relationships
Procedure	Dependence on policies, rules and established procedures	necessity for creativity, intuition, tolerance (allowable) for ambiguity (uncertainty), creative for problem solving

                             

6.2- UNDERSTANDING DECISION-MAKING

Before we go on to consider how decisions are made and what outcomes might be, we need to understand the dimensions (size) which describes the decision-making differ. There are three dimensions, relating the outcomes, how well structured the decisions are, and decisions are made or what those decisions are. In the decision-making outcomes are classified as being: Certain, Risky and Uncertain

1- Certain (no risk)—the decision maker has complete knowledge of the outcome of each alternative and the task is to establish preferences among those alternative. Certainty is good outcomes because the decision makers have accurate and comprehensive (complete) information

2- Risky—the decision maker has some probabilistic estimate of the outcomes of each alternative. Decision-making under conditions of risk is probably the most situations. Risk is the decision makers have only probability of success is less than 100%

3- Uncertain—the decision maker has absolutely (totally) no knowledge of the probability (chance) of the outcome of each alternative. Managers have insufficient (inadequate) information to know the consequences (penalty) of different actions. Decision makers may have strong personal opinions, they may feel sure of themselves, but they are still operating under conditions of uncertainty if they lack information and can not estimate the different results of actions.

6.3- THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

Decisions should be through of as a means rather than an end. They are the organizational mechanisms through which an attempt is made to achieve a desired state. They are, in effect, an organizational response to a problem. The decision-making process differs depending on the type of decision problem that we face. Face with these challenges, how are good decisions made? The ideal decision-making process move through five `stages:....                 

Exhibit 6.3: Process of Decision-making  

                                                                                                           

Establishing Specific Goals and                            Problem Identification

Objectives and Measuring results                    and Definition

 

Development of Alternative Solutions      Consideration of Causes

Evaluation of Alternative Solutions                Solution Selection

Follow-Up                                                           Implementation

6.4- INDIVIDUAL VERSUS GROUP DECISION-MAKING

Considerable debate has occurred over the relative effectiveness of individual versus group decision-making. Groups usually take more time to reach a decision than individuals do. But bringing together individual specialists and experts has its benefits since the mutually reinforcing impact of their interaction results in better decisions.

Individual Decision-Making—advantage such as quickly decisions (save time), and less cost, decision is made by one person on what he/she wants to do. But disadvantages include very less information, other people do not understand the decision, high risk decision, dissatisfy and goal deviation/changes.....................................................

Group Decision-Making—potential includes more information is available, a greater number of perspectives(vision) on the issue, the discussion provides an opportunity—get people thinking, creativity, people who participate understand why the decision was made, higher level of commitment to the decisions. But the potential problems in using a group includes take more time, one group member dominates(cover) the discussion, satisfy is more with groups, pressure to avoid disagreement (groupthink), goal displacement (dislocation) (new goals emerge to replace the original ones) ........................................................................................

6.5- EFFECTIVE GROUP DECISION-MAKING

The requirements for effectively managing group decision making includes

Leadership style—avoid domination (aggressive), encourage inputs, groupthink and satisfying, remember goals.

Creativity—includes encourage participants brainstorming, exhaust (refresh) ideas, combine and share ideas

Constructive Conflict—Air legitimate differences, stay task-related, be impersonal, mutually benefits, accept and share cultural differences  

6.6- COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

The importance of Communication—communication is the glue (join) that holds organizations together. Communication assists organizational members to accomplish both individual and organizational goals, implement and respond to organizational change, coordinate organizational activities, and engage in all organization relevant to behaviors.

6.7- THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication Experts tell us that effective communication

- A common understanding between the communicator and the receiver.

Exhibit 6.7: A Communication Model

        ........Who.......              .........          ...Say what...             ........           ...To whom...

        Communicator          Encoding          Message           Decoding           Receiver

                                                                 and Medium

        .....Noise                              Feedback (with what effect?)   

6.8- INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

How do group members transfer meaning between and among each other? There are three basic methods. People rely on Oral/Verbal, Written, and Non-Verbal Communication.

Oral/Verbal Communication—the means of conveying messages is oral/verbal communication. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, telephone are forms of oral communication. The advantages of oral communication are speed and feedback.

Written Communication—includes memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions, notices, boards or others...................Both sender and receiver have a record of the communication. Written is tangible and visual.......................

Non-Verbal Communication (Body Language)—every time we verbally give a message to someone, we also impart a non-verbal message. These cues include such head, face, eye movement, posture, distance, gestures, voice tone, smiling........Non-verbal messages are influenced by factors such as gender, society, cultures, personality, attitudes, behaviors.

6.9- COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

Within organization of the communication process occur at two levels within organization:1-Interpersonal and 2-Organizational.

1-Interpersonal—communication flows from individual to individual in face-to-face and group settings. Interpersonal communication influences how people feel about organization. Ex: as we will see our management communication style. Individuals spend much of their time communicating with others.

2-Organizational—the design of organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions:

 -Downward, -Upward (Vertical) and - Horizontal.

-Downward Communication — this types of communication flows downward from individuals in higher levels of the hierarchy to those in lower levels.

-Upward Communication—an effective organization needs upward communication as much as it needs downward communication. The communicator is at the lower levels in the organization. Some of the most common upward communication flows are suggestions boxes, group meetings. Upward communication provides managers with feedback about current organizational issues and problems and information about day-to-day operations that they need for making decisions about the directing the organization.

-Horizontal Communication—Effective organizations also need horizontal communication. It is necessity for coordination and integration of diverse organization functions. Ex: communication between /among departments, faculties within a university.

6.10- BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

A number of barriers can distort effective communication. We highlight the more important of these barriers:

Language—words mean different things to different people. Age, education, and cultural background are variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he/she gives to words.

Emotions — the same message received when you are angry, unhappy is often interpreted differently from you are happy. Extremely emotions such as stress, angry or depression are most hinder effective communication. In every communication situation involves human emotions, value judgments are made by the receiver, it may be based on the receiver’s emotions.

Information Overload—individuals have a finite capacity of processing data. As E-mail, when the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity. And with email, phone calls, faxes, meetings, and the need to keep current and specific relevant information, more and more managers and professionals are complaining that they are suffering overload.

Selective Perception—because the receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also project their interests and expectations into communication as they decode. According to the concept of perception—people can see the same thing or person but they will interpret differently based on their cultures, background, knowledge, personal characteristics and so on. So, selective communication may create barriers to effective communication because people believe and trust their own perception.

Gender—research provides us with some important insights into the differences between men and women in communication styles.

Cross - Cultural and Cultural Barriers—There are barriers caused by semantics, beliefs, values, expectations, tone differences, differences among perceptions..... . Ex: words mean different things to different people. This is particular true for people from different national cultures. Some words don’t translate between cultures. Understanding the words will help you in communicating with people.

Diversity—people from different cultures have different beliefs, values and expectations. Ex: quantity of life and quality of life, long-term orientation and short-term orientation.

Tone differences mean in some cultures, language is formal, polite or more respect, in others it is informal. Some cultures the tone changes depending on the context: people speak differently at home, in social situations, and at work. They change to use personal, informal, formal styles depending on the situations.

6.11- OVERCOMING (solution) TO COMMUNICATION ISSUES

Effective communication is the result of a common understanding between the communicator and the receiver. To overcome to barriers to effective communication is to:

- Use the proper languages—words, phrases, sentences with more respect and politely,

- Understand human emotions—time, happy, angry, sad, places.

- Information must be specific and relevant

- Understand cross-cultural—people from different background, personality characteristics, beliefs, values, expectations, and styles

- Gender—men and women are equal. Respect women or human rights and accepting cross cultural communication between men and women

QUESTIONS

1-  What is a Decision? And what types of decisions? Explain briefly

2-  What is certain, risk, or uncertain decision?

3-  What is the process of decision-making?

4-  Explain what advantages and disadvantages of individual and group decisions? And what effective decision?

5-  What is Communication and its process?

6-  Explain the communication within the organization—vertical and horizontal? And why does communication have problems?

7-  What are the alternative solutions to communication issues?

8-  What modern electronic equipments are used in communication?   

CHAPTER 7

STRESS MANAGEMENT

7.1- UNDERSTANDING STRESS

Stress is a tension of physical and mental or feelings worry about your work, or your personal life. Stress means different things to many different people.

From a layperson or Buddha’s perspective, stress can variously described as feelings tense, anxious or worried. These feelings are manifestations of the stress experience. Stress may cause from many different things or people, such as: stress from work, life stress, environmental stress, political stress, economical stress, cultural shock creates stress.............................................

Stressor—a stressor is a potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation. Stress is a response to a stressor.

7.2- STRESS AND WORK

We have divided these stressors into three main categories: physical environment, individual, group and organizational

Physical Environment Stressors-This group of stressors identifies unsafe working conditions as a source of stress, ex: temperatures, toxic waste, chemical substance...........These problems created stress from physical environment influencing workers in their workplaces.

Individual Stressors—stress for demand that is placed on individual in his or her job or personal life. This example is stress related to work—Role stress describes for individual job. Role Conflict means conflicting demands from a supervisor about job and being pressured to people. Role conflict results from organizational policies or from other persons. One more important source of role-related stress is Role Ambiguity—this occurs when individuals do not understand the rights, and obligations that a person has for doing the job.

Group and Organizational Stressor—the effectiveness of any organization is influenced by the nature of the interactions within and between groups. Many group characteristics can be powerful stressors for some individuals. A number of behavioural scientists have suggested that good relationships among the members of a work group are a central factor in individual wellbeing. Poor relations include low trust, low supportiveness and low interest and poor solving problems that confront employees.

Participation in decision-making—is considered an important part of working within organizations for some individuals. Participation refers to the extent that a person’s knowledge, opinions, and ideas are included in the decision process. Participation can contribute to stress.

Organizational Structure—is another factor that has one effect of tall (bureaucratically structured) creates stress in job performance and more job dissatisfaction. The least bureaucratically structured (flat) arrangement experienced less stress and more job satisfaction and perform more effectively than the tall structures. A number of studies have examined the relationship of organizational level to health effects.

7.3- LIFE STRESSORS

When individuals undergo extremely stressful changes in their lives, their personal health, family, is likely to suffer at some points. Life change events represent acute stress. Look the Exhibit of 7.3 below: The relationships between life-change event score rate and personal problems 

Exhibit 7.3 Rating Scale of Life Stressors

Rank	Life Event	Value
1	Death of Spouse	100%
2	Divorce	73%
3	Marital Separation (Family conflict)	65%
4	Death of a close member	63%
5	Personal injury or illness	53%
6	Marriage (wedding)	50%
7	Fire at work (dismissal)	47%
8	Retirement	45%
9	Change in responsibilities at work	29%
10	Change in living conditions	25%
11	Change in social activities	18%
12	Change in eating habits	15%

 

7.4- STRESS CONSEQUENCES (disadvantages) 

Individual Consequences—the effects of stress are many and varied. Some effects are positive, such as self-motivation and satisfy individual goals and objectives. But many are negative leads to stress consequences are potential dangerous. Some studies showed the effects of stress consequences are related to Psychology, Physiology and Behaviour

-       Psychology—people who have stress will be: job dissatisfaction, depression (worried), bad moodiness (feeling), emotional instability, low motivation.......................

-       Physiology— physical and mental illness, heart disease (sickness), high blood pressures, headaches, more illness...............

-       Behavior—people who have stress will be: low job performance, more accidents, faulty decisions, high absenteeism, workplace aggression and violence, angry...........

    

Organizational Consequences—Organizational Consequences will lead to increase stress in job dissatisfaction. Job Dissatisfaction can be associated with a number of dysfunctional outcomes including increased turnover, and absenteeism, and reduced job performance. Job Dissatisfaction will also lead to customer dissatisfaction with lower quality goods or services can have a significant effect on an organization’s growth and profitability.

7.5- STRESS PREVENTION AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

A smart manager never ignores a turnover or absenteeism problem, workplace drug (medicine), abuse (violence), a decline in performance, reduced quality in production, or any other sign that the organization’s performance goals are not being met.   

How can managers deal with stress? There is an important distinction between Prevention Stress and Managing Stress:

-       Stress Prevention—focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors that might provoke/create the stress response

-       Stress Management—suggests procedures for helping individuals cope effectively with or reduce stress that is already being experienced

Organizational Stress Prevention and Management Programs (Solution)

1.The organization may conduct stress management workshops, which aim to provide individuals with the skills to recognize symptom (symbol) of stress and to respond appropriately.

2.Training programs to provide individuals with skills that will help them to manage the environment and reduce the level of stress that they experience: communication skills, conflict management skills, and time management are all examples of training.

Organizational Structure and Climate

This could involve redesign of work, work teams are created, increasing individual control over the environment. In addition, organizations can engage in more participative decision-making, so that employees obtain more information and a greater sense of control.

Role Characteristics

When individuals have competing or unclear demands made, or when there is too much (not enough) to do, they experience stress. One of the simplest means for establishing clear roles is to provide employees with detailed job description, indicate their priority and specific responsibilities that make up each function. Role analysis and clarification provide a mean for eliminating these stressors.

Maximizing Person-Environment Fit (appropriate)

From this perspective organizational stress may be viewed as a consequence of the relationship between the individual and the work environment. A Person-Environment Fit (P-E Fit) approach generally focuses on two dimensions of fit:

1-   The work meet or match (fit) the person’s needs. The results in stress may from job provides too little job security, insufficient money for the effort expended, or inadequate recognition to meet the individual’s needs or preferences

2-   The employee’s skills, abilities, and experience match the demands and requirements of the employer (boss). So, improving the quality or maximizing fit between the employee and the organizational environment.

Interpersonal Relationships

Social support is an important means for stress reduction. Therefore, any strategy which improves the relationships between co-workers is likely to foster a less stressful environment. Improving communication will reduce misunderstandings and reduce conflict. Regular staff meetings, team-building and development of good interpersonal and organizational communication practices all have the potential to improve interpersonal relationships at work.

Corporate Culture

To understand culture is very important and successful organization. Stress-free from sharing cross cultures and diversity of workforce. Organizations develop strategies such as sponsoring corporate culture fitness programs or provide employees with values, respect, freedom, human rights at workplace and create good environmental cultures at work.

QUESTIONS

1-  What is Stress? What is stressor? Why do people have stress?

2-  Is stress occurred the same things to the same people?

3-  Explain the differences between work stress and life stress?

4-  What is the physical stress environment?

5-  What are group and organizational stressors?

6-  What is stress consequence?

7-  Explain stress consequences for individuals and organization?

8-  What is stress prevention and stress management?

   11- What are the differences between stress prevention and stress management? What are the possible solutions for stress at work?

CHAPTER 8

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT AND DISPUTE RESOLUTIONS

8.1- UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT

Why do conflicts occur?

-       Achieving individual, group or organizational goals often depends not just (clearly) on our actions but also on the actions of other individuals or groups.

-       When other individuals or groups share our goals and are willing to cooperate in goal achievement, conflicts are unlikely to develop.

-       Often, however, individuals find themselves in situations where they must achieving their own goals (competing), or working with others to achieve group goals (cooperating).

-       We will consider the keys to conflict

o the concepts of social interdependence, factors that affect individuals’ decisions to compete or cooperate. Our understanding of these factors are important in developing strategies for reducing organizational conflict.

8.2- DETERMINANTS OF CONFLICT

- Social Interdependence

- Determinants of Competition

- Determinants of Inter-Group Conflict

- Functional Conflict

- Dysfunctional Conflict

- Differences in Goals

- Limited Resources

- Reward Structures

- Differences in Perceptions

- Interpersonal Factors

8.3- CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE CONFLICTS

Constructive Conflict—any conflict produces good results and constructive behavior. For example; two departments have different expectations and means to reach the same goals. They argued to develop the new means or systems to achieve maximized outcomes.

Destructive Conflict—any conflict produces bad results and negative behavior. This conflict disrupted the achievement of organizational goals. It will lead to destruction.

8.4- DISPUTE RESOLUTIONS

How will we solve constructively conflicts when they arise? There are several strategies that we might use, the two dispute resolution strategies are the most common used are: Negotiation and Mediation (coordination):

Negotiation—From the definitions, negotiation can be generally defined as a form of social interaction in which parties who are interdependent try to solve incompatible or divergent goals. Negotiation as a form of social interaction, there is a need to understand the social psychology of negotiators’ behavior that may be used by the parties involved in the negotiation.

Negotiation is one process used to resolve conflict. The principal goal of negotiation is for two or more individuals to decide how they will divide resources between them, (conflict of interests).

8.5- NEGOTIATION PROCESS

The negotiation will provide the simple model of its process:

1-      Preparation and Planning

- What’s the nature of conflict?

- Who involved and what are their perceptions of the conflict?

- What do you want from the negotiation?

- What are your goals?

- What you think the other parties want

You must prepare and plan to make sure your goals will be met successfully. You need to gather your information, use it to develop a strategy.

2-      Definition of Ground Rules—once you’ve done your planning and developed a strategy, you’re ready to begin defining the ground rules and procedures with the other party over the negotiation itself.

a.  Who will do the negotiation?

b. Where will it take place?

c.  What time constraints?

d. What issues will negotiation be limited?

e.  Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an impasse/no way to exit is reached? During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.

3-      Clarification and Justification—when initial have been exchanged, both you and other party will explain,

a.  clarify and justify your original demands. It is an opportunity for educating and informing each other on the issues,

b. why they are important, and each arrived at their initial demands. This is the point at which you might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position.

4-      Bargaining and Problem-Solving—the essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take in trying to reach an agreement. It is where concessions will need to be made by both parties. (Open, Trusty, and Concession by both conflict parties. Don’t close the door, keep it open)

5-      Closure (ending) and Implementation—the final step in the negotiation process is formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. This will require formal contract to be made. The closure of negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.

8.6- ISSUES IN NEGOTIATION

There are four contemporary issues in negotiation: 1-personality traits, 2-gender differences, 3-cultural differences on negotiating style and 4-use the third parties to help resolve differences

1-    Personality Traits—can you predict an (Rival) opponent’s negotiating tactics if you know something about his or her personality? The assessments of the personality-negotiation relationship finds that personality traits have some effects on the bargaining process but not effect on negotiation outcomes because you must concentrate on the issues and situational factors in each bargaining episode (short period of time) and not on your opponent’s personality.

2-    Gender Differences in Negotiations—do men and women negotiate differently? And does gender affect negotiation outcomes? Yes/No? A popular stereotype held by many is that women are more cooperative and pleasant in negotiations than men. Men have been found to negotiate better outcomes than women but the difference is quite small. Men are more aggressive and powerful behavior.  

3-    Cultural Differences in Negotiation—Negotiating styles vary across national cultures. For example: A person likes conflict. He or she frequently develops thinking and acting against others. The first study of comparison between North Americans, Arabs, and Russians. Among the factors that were looked at their negotiating styles, how they responded to an opponent’s arguments, their approach to making concessions.

                                                          i.      North Americans tried to persuade by relying on facts and logic. They countered opponents’ argument with objective facts. They made small concessions early in the negotiation to establish a relationship, and also usually reciprocated opponent’s concessions. North Americans treat deadlines as very important.

                                                     ii.      The Arabs tried to persuade by appealing to emotion. They countered opponent’s argument with subjective feelings. They made concessions through the bargaining process, also always reciprocated opponents’ concessions. Arabs approached deadlines very causally.

                                                 iii.      The Russians tended to ignore deadlines.

The second study looked at verbal and non-verbal negotiation tactics exhibited by North Americans, Japanese, and Brazilians during half-hour bargaining sessions. There are some differences were particular interesting. For example: Brazilians on average said “NO” 83 times, compared to 5 times for Japanese and 9 times for North Americans. The Japanese and North Americans interrupted their opponent about the same number of times, but the Brazilians interrupted 2.5 to 3 times more often than the North Americans and Japanese. Finally, while the Japanese and North Americans had no physical contact with their opponents during negotiations except for handshaking only, the Brazilians touched each other almost 5 times every half-hour.

4.MEDIATION (THIRD-PARTY NEGOTIATION)

Negotiations do not always take place only between the two parties directly involved in the disagreement. Sometimes third parties are called in when the negotiations between the main parties have broken down or reached an impasse/no way to exit.

Sometimes the third parties may be part of the negotiation process from the beginning. The third parties involvement assisted disputing parties to develop alternative conflict resolutions. Notice: there are different kinds of third party interventions. The third party involvement has been characterized in many different ways to help to solve conflicts. Third party is a neutral who acts as a facilitator through the negotiation process and do not have any authority or power to make decisions or put any pressure on conflicting parties to accept the agreement. The successful mediation include find good strategies in mediating, help to set the stage of negotiation, try to help problem-solving, develop achieving a workable solution, improving mediator effectiveness and strategies for sustainable outcomes

QUESTIONS

1-What is conflict? Explain the constructive conflict and destructive conflict?  What are the causes of conflict?

2-What is negotiation and its process? What is mediation?

3- Effective mediator, what do they do?

4-What is the idea of effective conflict management?

CHAPTER 9

ORGANIZATIONAL POWER AND POLITICS

9.1 THE CONCEPT OF POWER

The study of power and its effects is important to understand how organizations operate. It is possible to interpret very interaction and every social relationship in an organization as involving power. The terms power and influence are frequently used interchangeably in the organizational behavior literature, yet important difference.

Influence—is a transaction in which a person B is induced by person A to behave in a certain way. For example: if an employee works overtime at the boss’s request, that employee has been influenced by the boss.

Power—involves a relationship between two people and power as A has power over B because he/she can get B to do something. What is differences between Power & Influence?

Power represents the capacity to get someone to do something, influence is the exercise of that capacity. Another way of stating the distinction is to say that power is the potential to influence, while influence is power in action. Thus, an individual may have power (the capacity to influence) but not exercise it. On the other hand, an individual cannot influence without power.

The definition of power above, we frequently speak of someone having power over someone else.

9.2- SOURCES OF POWER

Power obtained in a variety of ways. Since it facilitates the organization’s adaptation to its environment, individuals and groups within the organization that are able to assist in that adaptation are the ones which will hold power. Such power can be derived from many sources:

INTERPERSONAL POWER

John French and Bertram Raven—a classic writing in the management and organizational behavior literature suggested five interpersonal bases of power:

1-    Legitimate Power

2-    Reward Power

3-    Coercive Power

4-    Expert Power

5-    Referent Power     

Other Power

-       STRUCTURAL POWER

-       RESOURCE POWER

-       DECISION-MAKING POWER

- INFORMATION POWER

9.3- ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

The term Politics—connected with the government or public affairs of a country and its relations with other countries or connected with the ideas, activities, or advantage of a group or organization in politics

The definition for organizational politics, essentially they have focused on the use of power to affect decision-making in the organization or on behaviors by members. For our purpose, we shall define political behavior in organizations as activities and attempts to influence others. The behavior requires some attempt to use one’s power bases. In addition, our definition encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision-making when we stated that politics is connected with the others in organization.      

9.4- THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Individual Factors — at the individual level, researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. In terms of traits, we find that employees who are self-monitors, possess (have power over) an internal locus (local) of control, and have high needs for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues(sign), exhibits higher levels of social conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Individuals with an internal locus of control, because they believe they can control their environment.

Organizational Factors—political activities is more a function of the organization’s characteristics than individual difference variables. Why? Because many organizations have a large number of employees with the individual characteristics, yet the political behavior varies widely.

Individual differences can play in fostering politicking, the evidence more strongly supports that certain situations and cultures promote politics. More specifically, when an organization’s resources are declining, when existing resources are changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, reductions in resources have to be made. Threatened with the loss of resources, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. But any changes, significant reallocation of resources within the organization, are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking

9.5- THE EHTICS OF BEHAVING POLITICALLY

We conclude our discussion of politics by providing some ethical guidelines for political behavior: Guidelines for ethical actions are Utilitarianism, Rights, and Justice.

Utilitarianism (benefits) —manager’s behavior results in optimization of satisfaction of people inside and outside the organization. In other word, it results in the greatest good for greatest number of people.

Individual Rights—the manager’s behavior respects the rights of all affected parties. IN other word, it respects basic human rights of free consent, free speech, freedom of conscience and privacy.

Justice—the manger’s behavior respects the rules of justice. It does treat people arbitrarily, equitably and fairly.

QUESTIONS

1-           What is organizational power?

2-           What sources of power are prescribed by organization and are created by personal?

3-           What the differences between power and influence?

4-           What factors contribute to political behavior?

5-           What are guidelines of Ethics of Political Behavior? Explain?

    

CHAPTER 10

LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATION

10.1- CONCEPTS OF LEADERSHIP

With so much interest in leadership, it might be assumed that everyone is in general agreement about what constitutes leadership. There are numerous interpretations and definitions of leadership. There are definitions that describe leadership as personality, influence, behavior, power, goal achievement, or relationship development. The definition suggests that a person (a leader) can influence the behavior of others (subordinate, peer, and superior). Leaders attempt to influence individuals and groups to achieve important goals. Influencing the behavior of others to achieve goals outside the organization is not considered to be leadership.

The attempts to influence leadership can be based on many different factors including personality, behavior or power. The definition we propose is broad enough to accommodate these and other forms of influence. It is also important to note that our definition indicates that any individual, in any position, at any level of organization can exert goal-specific influence on others. The ability to influence does not emerge solely from a person’s position in the organization. In a certain situation, non-managers, team members or subordinates in a group can function as influencers of behavior or as leaders. Leader can be found everywhere in organizations through the application of influence, relevant goals are achieved.

10.2- TRAITS THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

The thinking of leadership focused on identifying the traits of effective leaders. This approach is based on the assumption that a finite number of individual traits of effective leaders could be found.

Thus, most research was designed to identify intellectual, personality, and physical traits of successful leaders:

Intelligence — research studies found a general trend indicating that leaders were more intelligence than their followers. One significant finding was that extreme (great) intelligence differences between leaders and followers. For example: A leader with a relatively high IQs may understand why the members do not understand the problem. In addition, such a leader may have difficulty in communicating ideas and policies. Being too intelligent would be a problem in some situations.

Personality — some search suggests that personality traits such as alertness, originality, personal integrity (honesty) and self-confidence are associated with effective leadership. Edwin Ghiselli reported there is several personality traits associated with leader effectiveness. For example: he found that the ability to initiate action independently. Finally, he found that people who exhibited individuality were the most effective leaders.

Physical Traits—studies of the relationship between effective leadership and physical characteristics such as age, height, weight and appearance...........Many organizations believe that a physically large person is required to secure compliance (obedience) from followers.

Exhibit 10.1 Traits Associated with Leadership Effectiveness

  Intelligence                        Personality                            Abilities

  Judgment                            Adaptability                           Ability to enlist cooperation

  Decisiveness                       Alertness                                Cooperativeness

  Knowledge                         Creativity                               Prestige

  Fluency                   Personal integrity (honesty)                Sociability (interpersonal skills)

                                             Self-confident                        Social participation

                                            Emotional balance                   Diplomacy

                                            and control

10.3- BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

The researchers look at the behaviors exhibited by specific leaders. We will look at different Behavioral Theories of Leadership:

1-  Initiating Structure—refers to a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and search for goal attainment. It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals. The leader characterized as high in initiating structure could be described as someone who assigns group members to particular tasks, expect workers to maintain standards of performance

2-  Consideration—is described as a person is likely to have job relationships that are characterized by trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. Leader shows concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction. A leader high in consideration could be described as one who helps employees with personal problems, is friendly, and treats all employees as equals.

 That is, leadership style is very people-oriented, emphasizing on cooperation and consensus building. The research studies based on these definitions, found that leaders high in initiating structure and consideration (a high-high leader) tended to achieve high employee performance and satisfaction more than those who rated low on consideration, initiating structure, or both.

3-  Employee-Oriented Leader—leaders who were employee-oriented were described as emphasizing interpersonal relations, they took a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepted individual differences among members.

4-  Production-Oriented Leader—in contrast, tended to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job—their main concern was in accomplishing their group’s tasks, and the group members were a means to that end

5-  Development-Oriented Leader—one who value experimentation, seeks new ideas, and generates and implements change.

The behavioral Theories of leadership—have had success in identifying consistent relationship between leadership behavior and group performance. The proper behavior of leaders will lead to organizational success. Leaders should behave a certain way to orient task outcomes, human motivation, production capacity and quality, functional structure, considerations, and development.....

 10.4- LEADER POWER

You have already learned chapter 9 about: Organizational Power. Power is ability of leadership to influence individuals and groups toward the achievement of goals. Leader’s authority (position power) provides the basis from he/she can develop strategies for improving subordinate performance. Leader’s power includes Expert power, referent Power, Legitimate power, Reward power, Coercive power and so on...................(See the chapter 9: Discuss in detail about the above power related to leader’s power.

QUESTIONS

1-  What is Leadership? And how is leadership important for organization?

2-  What are the leadership’s traits?

3-  Explain as much as possible and provide some examples and case study of the world about the leader’s traits?

4-  What are the leadership’s behavior theories? And what are the sources of power?

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